MEKANISME ASIMILASI HIDROKAR-BON OLEH BAKTERI HIDROKARBON KLASIK PSEUDOMONAS

Biodegradasi hidrokarbon oleh mikroorganisme merupakan proses utama dalam penguraian senyawa hidrokarbon di alam. Salah satu masalah yang menghambat proses tersebut adalah ketersediaan (bioavailability) substrat hidrokarbon yang bersifat hidrofob bagi. mikroorganisme. Oleh sebab itu, kontak antara sel mikroorganisme dengan substrat merupakan tahap yang paling penting dalam pengambilan substrat oleh mikroorganisme. Pemahaman tentang interaksi mikroorganisme dengan substrat hidrokarbon (mekanisme asimilasi) sangat dibutuhkan untuk mengatasi permasalahan hambatan dalam biodegradasi hidrokarbon. Bakteri Pseudomonas sp merupakan bakteri hidrokarbonoklastik yang mampu mendegradasi berbagai jenis hidrokarbon. Keberhasilan penggunaan bakteri Pseudomonas dalam upaya bioremediasi lingkungan akibat pencemaran hidrokarbon membutuhkan pemahaman tentang mekanisme interaksi antara bakteri Pseudomonas sp dengan senyawa hidrokarbon.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengungkap mekanisme yang digunakan oleh bakteri Pseudomonas sp. IA7D hasil isolasi dari lingkungan tercemar hidrokarbon di perairan Kali Donan Cilacap Jawa Tengah dalam mendegradasi 3 jenis substrat hidrokarbon berbeda (heksadekana, solar dan pelumas) dan untuk mengetahui kemampuan biodegradasi hidrokarbon oleh bakteri Pseudomonas sp IA7D. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian expost-facto dan analisisnya dilakukan secara deskriptif.

Kultur bakteri dibuat dengan cara menumbuhkan bakteri pada media cair selektif hidrokarbon yang mengandung air mineral sintetik yang ditambahkan senyawa hidrokarbon (heksadekana, solar dan pelumas) sebagai satu-satunya sumber karbon dan energi. Kultur bakteri diinkubasi dalam shaker pada suhu 28 °C dengan agitasi 96 rpm selama 30 hari. Data yang diamati meliputi : a) peningkatan biomassa sel bakteri yang dinyatakan dengan jumlah sel bakteri (CFU/ml) yang dihitung dengan metode pour plate; b) uji mekanisme asimilasi hidrokarbon dilakukan dengan mengukur aktivitas perlekatan sel bakteri, aktivitas emulsifikasi hidrokarbon dan nilai tegangan permukaan dari supernatan kultur bakteri ; c) kemampuan biodegradasi yang dinyatakan dalam persentasi degradasi hidrokarbon dengan metode gravimetri dan dianalisis menggunakan kromatografi gas.

Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa bakteri Pseudomonas sp IA7D mampu tumbuh baik pada ketiga substrat hidrokarbon (heksadekana, solar dan pelumas). Dalam mendegradasi hidrokarbon uji, bakteri Pseudomonas sp. IA7D menggunakan mekanisme perlekatan pada substrat hidrokarbon dan memproduksi bioemulsifier/biosurfaktan. Produk biosurfaktan yang dihasilkan bakteri Pseudomonas sp IA7D dapat meningkatkan emulsifikasi hidrokarbon di dalam air dan mampu menurunkan tegangan permukaan supernatan kultur bakteri. Pada substrat heksadekana dan solar, Pseudomonas sp IA7D lebih dominan menggunakan mekanisme memproduksi biosurfaktan untuk memudahkan kontak dengan substrat, sedangkan pada pelumas Pseudomonas sp IA7D lebih menggunakan mekanisme perlekatan. Dari hasil pengukuran persentasi biodegradasi diketahui bahwa Pseudomonas sp IA7D mampu mendegradasi hidrokarbon hingga mencapai 35,15 % pada solar dan 19,16% pada heksadekana dalam masa inkubasi selama 21 hari. Sedangkan tingkat penurunan minyak pelumas hasil biodegradasi Pseudomonas sp. IA7D tidak terdeteksi.

Kemampuan bakteri Pseudomonas sp. IA7D dalam mendegradasi hidrokarbon dan dalam menghasilkan biosurfaktan menunjukkan bahwa isolat bakteri Pseudomonas sp IA7D berpotensi untuk digunakan dalam upaya bioremediasi lingkungan akibat pencemaran hidrokarbon.

Dibiayai oleh Proyek Pengembangan Ilmu Pengetahuan Terapan DIP Nomor: 019/XXIII/I--/2002 Tanggal1 Januari 2002 Kontrak Nomor : 024/P2IPT/DPPM/IV/2002 Dirbinlitabmas Dirjen Dikti, Depdiknas




Translation:
MECHANISM OF HYDROCARBON ASSIMILATION BY HYDROCARBONOCLASTIC BACTERIA Pseudomonas sp (Ni'matuzahroh, Tini Surtiningsih, Mulyadi Tanjung, 37 pages)

Biodegradation of hydrocarbon by microorganism is a prior process elimination hydrocarbon in the sea. One of the problems that inhibit hydrocarbon degradation is availability substrate of hydrocarbon by microorganism. However, cell-substrate contact is obviously essential for substrate uptake by microorganism. The understandings of microbial interaction with hydrocarbon substrate (mechanism of assimilation) will be needed to overcome the problems of limitation in biodegradation process. Pseudomonas sp. bacteria is a hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria that capable to degrade various kind of hydrocarbon substrates. The success of Pseudomonas bacteria utilization in environmental bioremediation caused by hydrocarbon pollution need the understandings of interaction mechanism between Pseudomonas sp. bacteria with hydrocarbon compounds.

This research purpose to explore the mechanism that developed by Pseudomonas sp. IA7D bacteria isolated from Kali Donan river waters Cilacap in degrading 3 different kinds of hydrocarbon substrate (hexadecane, gas oil, and lubricants oil) and to calculate the percentage of hydrocarbon biodegradation by Pseudomonas sp. IA7D bacteria. This research is expost-facto experiments and analyzed descriptively.

Bacteria culture made in hydrocarbon selective broth medium contains of synthetics sea-water added with hydrocarbon compounds (hexadecane, gas oil, lubricants oil) as the only one of carbon and energy source. Bacteria culture incubated in shaker at 28°C with 96-rpm agitation for 30 days. Observation included: a) increasing of bacteria cell biomass showed by total of bacteria cell (CFU/ml) calculated using pour plate method. b) Mechanism test of hydrocarbon assimilation accomplished by measuring the adherence activities of bacteria cell, hydrocarbon emulsification activities and surface tension value of supernatant bacteria culture. c) Percentage of hydrocarbon degradation measured using gravimetric method and analyzed using gas chromatography.

Result of the research showed that Pseudomonas sp. IA7D bacterium is capable to grow well in three hydrocarbon substrates (hexadecane, gas oil, and lubricants). In hydrocarbon degradation test Pseudomonas sp. IA7D bacteria developed the mechanism in interacted with hydrocarbon by adherence mechanism and produce bioemulsifier/biosurfactant. Biosurfactant produced by Pseudomonas sp. lA7D bacterium able to increase the hydrocarbon emulsification in water and able to decrease the surface tension of supernatant bacteria culture. In hexadecane and gas oil substrate, Pseudomonas sp. IA 70 more dominant in developing of mechanism to produce biosurfactant in order to easier the contact with substrates, meanwhile in lubricants Pseudomonas sp. 1A7D developed more in adherence mechanism. The result of calculating percentage of biodegradation known that Pseudomonas sp. lA7D capable degradation gas oil up to 35.15% and hexadecane up to 19.16% in incubation time of21 days. But, the percentage of lubricant oil biodegradation by Pseudomonas sp. 1A7d couldn't be detected successfully.

Capability of Pseudomonas sp. 1A7D bacteria in degrading hydrocarbon and producing biosurfactant showed the isolate of Pseudomonas sp. IA7D bacteria potentially used in environmental bioremediation caused by hydrocarbon contamination.

PENGARUH KONSENTRASI TERHADAP EFISIENSI PENGENDAPAN BANGUNAN PENANGKAP SEDIMEN

Meningkatnya sedimen layang (suspended sedimen) dalam aliran yang diukur dalam kosentrasi akan berpengaruh terhadap kecepatan pengendapan butiran sedimen dan pada akhirnya akan mempengaruhi efesiensi pengendapan bangunan penangkap sedimen.
Penelitian ini untuk melihat pengaruh perubahan konsentrasi sedimen layang dalam aliran terhadap efisiensi pngendapan, dengan percobaan pengaliran pada prototype bangunan penangkap sedimen di laboratorium. Bahan sedimen yang digunakan adalah batu bara dengan diameter butiran terbesar 1,0 mm. Sebelum dialirkan ke prototipe, sedimen dicampur dengan air dalam tangki pencampur yang dapat mengaduk secara merata dan dapat dinaik-turunkan untuk mempertahankan elevasi muka campuran air-sedimen konstan agar debit pengaliran dari tangki ke prototype juga konstan.
Konsentrasi "suspended sediment" yang masuk dan yang meninggalkan bidang pengendapan prototipe diukur untuk mengetahui efisiensi pengendapan. Efisiensi dihitung sebagai selisih konsentrasi sedimen yang masuk dan yang meninggalkan bidang pengendapan dibandingkan dengan konsentrasi sedimen yang masuk.
Percobaan pengaliran dilakukan tiga kali dengan tingkat konsentrasi sedimen (% volume) yang berbeda, yaitu: 0,203 %, 1,233 % dan 0,223 % dan masing-masing memberikan efisiensi pengendapan 76,1 %, 92,7 % dan 57,8 %. Hasil dari ketiga percobaan tersebut belum dapat ditarik kesimpulan mengenai pengaruh perubahan konsentrasi terhadap efisiensi pengendapan. Penelitian perlu dilanjutkan untuk tingkat konsentrasi yang lain.

Translation:
Increasing suspended sediment in the water flow measured in concentration will effect the fall velocity of sedimen partikel and in the end it will be effecting sedimen trap efficiency.
The Study is proposed to investigate the effect of suspended sediment consentration change on trap efficiency, using flow running test on sediment trap prototype in laboratory. Coal was used in the test representing the actual sedimen material . Maksimum diameter of the coal for the tes was 1,00 mm. Preceding the running the sediment material in a mixer tank must be mixed to ensure that the sediment was spread out entire the tank. The level of water table must be kept constant, so that the discharge flowing from the tank to the prototype with contant discharge.
Each suspended sediment inflowing and outflowing sedimentation area was measured to yield trap efficiency. Such efficiency was calculated as difference between iflowing and outflowing sediment concentration divided with the inflowing concentration.
Three test were conducted in wich the sedimen concentration was different each other, i.e: 0°203%, 1.233 % and 0.22 % resulting the following sediment trap efficiency respectively: 76.1 %, 92.7 5 and 57.8 %. However no satisfiying conclution can be concluded yet. Other concentration test are suggested to have a better result.

Teknologi Daur Ulang Skrap Besi/Baja: Menyelamatkan Industri Baja Nasional

Krisis baja yang sedang kita "nikmati" bakal bertahan lama. Pasalnya, China masih terus menyedot bahan baku baja dunia untuk keperluan pembangunan industri dalam negeri dan industri otomotifnya dengan total konsumsi 350 juta ton per tahun atau sekitar sepertiga dari total konsumsi baja di dunia. Indonesia, yang hanya mengkonsumsi 6 juta ton per tahunnya, harus menghadapi kenyataan ini, bersaing mendapatkan "jatah" pellet dan skrap impor dari negara-negara yang "berbaik hati".

Indonesia yang masih tidak mampu dan tidak mau mengolah tambang-tambang bijih besinya yang berjumlah milyaran ton, harus mengikhlaskan tambang-tambang tersebut dikuasai oleh eksportir asing dari China dan lain-lainnya dengan iming-iming harga yang menggiurkan kepada penguasa di daerah-daerah.

Dilain pihak, Uni Eropa telah menetapkan pelarangan impor mobil di tahun 2015 pada industri yang tidak menerapkan sistem daur ulang pada keseluruhan proses produksinya. Hal itu dilakukan untuk membendung masuknya kendaraan bermotor dari negara pesaingnya (Jepang, China, Amerika, dan lain-lain).

Kebijakan strategis ini akan segera diikuti oleh Jepang dalam memenangkan persaingan global. Oleh karenanya, Jepang mau tidak mau harus melakukan daur ulang skrap baja (baja bekas) dari industri otomotifnya dan diprediksi di tahun 2050 Jepang sudah dapat melakukan daur ulang sempurna skrap bajanya sehingga tidak memerlukan bahan baku baja lagi. Pengembangan teknologi pemurnian skrap baja akan segera mendapat prioritas utama dalam menyongsong persaingan global di dunia.

Lain halnya dengan Indonesia, kondisi industri berbasis baja dan besi cor semakin menyedihkan. Pasokan bahan baku baja yang menipis dan tingginya harga telah menghancurkan ratusan industri kecil pengecoran di Ceper dan sekitarnya. Bahan baku skrap besi dan baja yang jumlahnya lumayan banyak, tidak bisa digunakan begitu saja karena kandungan pengotor yang ada di dalamnya. Pengotor ini akan menurunkan kualitas produk akhir. Sementara itu, teknologi pemurnian juga masih belum dikembangkan. Jika teknologi ini dapat dikuasi, permasalahan yang dihadapi industri pengecoran dapat diselesaikan. Teknologi ini juga dapat diaplikasikan untuk membersihkan unsur-unsur yang tidak diinginkan pada proses pengolahan baja dari bijih besi lokal. Tidak hanya itu, teknologi ini juga dapat memecahkan permasalahan pemurnian skrap baja di dunia.

Teknologi daur ulang skrap besi/baja

Skrap besi/baja umumnya telah tercampur dengan logam lain saat proses daur ulang karena sulit dipisahkan. Ditambah lagi, banyaknya penggunakan pelapisan pada baja oleh Cr, Ni, Zn, Al, dan lain-lain untuk memenuhi suatu fungsi tertentu; seperti ketahanan korosi, keindahan, dan lain sebaginya. Penambahan Pb dilakukan untuk memperbaiki sifat permesinannya. Pada baja yang diperkuat, sering ditambahkan unsur-unsur lain seperti Ti, Cr, Ni, Co, V, dan W. Sementara itu, teknologi pengeliminasi unsur-unsur pengotor ini masih belum banyak diketahui, sehingga baja atau besi cor yang dihasilkan kurang memenuhi standar yang diharapkan. Misalnya keberadaaan Al dan Zn yang tidak terkontrol dapat menimbulkan pin hole yang sangat merusak hasil cor. Keberadaan Cu akan mengakibatkan hasil cor pecah atau menimbulkan crack pada permukaan baja yang mengalami perlakuan panas karena perbedaan titik leleh Cu dengan baja.

Pengeliminasian unsur-unsur pengotor dengan metoda bubbling (meniupkan udara dalam cairan logam) telah lama diketahui. Dengan bubbling udara atau O2, unsur-unsur yang memiliki kemampuan oksidasi diatas FeO seperti Si, Mn, B, Al lebih mudah dihilangkan daripada unsur-unsur yang memiliki kemampuan oksidasi di bawahnya seperti Pb, Cu, Ni, dan Co.

Pemurnian Zn, unsur Zn mudah hilang dengan penguapan, sedangkan Al dapat dipisahkan dengan efektif melalui oksidasi dengan O2. Pengoptimalan bubbling akan meningkatkan kecepatan pembersihan Zn, dan pengecilan gelembung-gelembung udara bubbling akan mempercepat proses oksidasi pada pembersihan Al. Namun demikian, di samping waktu prosesnya yang lama, metoda ini hanya dapat mengeliminasi unsur-unsur tertentu saja tergantung sifat reaksi dan berat jenis masing-masing unsur.

Metoda lain yang dikembangkan yaitu dengan compound separation (pemisahan pengotor dengan membuat paduan yang berbeda berat jenis). Perusahaan Kobe Steel Jepang telah mencoba mengeliminasi Pb dari kuningan dengan menambahkan Ca dan penyaringan, sedang cara teknisnya telah dipatenkan di Japan Paten. Namun demikian, pengeliminasian Pb tersebut kurang efektif karena keberadaan pengotor Pb yang berukuran kecil dan menyebar di dalam cairan.

Kelompok peneletian penulis telah berhasil mengoptimalkan pengeliminasian Pb dari paduan tembaga dengan menambahkan aggregation agents (pengikat unsur pengotor) Ca-Si dan NaF. Sedangkan mekanisme pengeliminasian Pb dari paduan tembaga tersebut telah ditemukan secara sederhana seperti ditunjukkan pada Gambar 1 dengan mendasarkan pada energi Gibb's. Teknik tersebut telah dipatenkan di Japan Paten dan sedang diuji dalam sekala industri. Prinsip dasar proses eliminasi pengotor pada paduan tembaga tidak berbeda dengan pada baja. Untuk itu, proses yang telah dikembangkan pada paduan tembaga diyakinkan dapat diterapkan juga pada baja.





Gambar 1. Mekanisme pengeliminasian pengotor dari skrap cair dengan kombinasi metoda bubbling dan compound separation.


Pada baja, unsur-unsur pengotor tertentu dapat dieliminasi dengan mudah dengan penambahan SiO2 dan CaO. Namun, mekanisme pengeliminasiannya masih belum banyak diketahui. Ditambah lagi unsur-unsur pengotor seperti Co, Ni, Cu, Sn dan Pb masih belum bisa dieliminasi dan menjadi masalah utama pada proses pengecoran baja dan besi cor. Jika dapat ditemukan dan dihitung energi Gibb's reaksi masing-masing unsur pengotor dengan aggregation agents-nya, maka mekanisme pengeliminasian unsur-unsur pengotor dapat disimulasikan.

Aplikasi teknologi daur ulang baja

Permasalahan utama pengolahan bijih besi lokal ialah kandungan pengotor seperti Ti dan V pada pasir besi yang berjumlah 170 juta ton, berada di sepanjang pantai pulau Jawa. Ti dapat mengendap dan menempel di dinding tungku terlebih dahulu saat proses reduksi, sehingga mengganggu proses pengecoran dan memperburuk aliran cairan besi. Sementara itu, bijih besi laterit yang berjumlah sekitar 1 milyar banyak mengandung Ni dan Co. Keberadaan Ni, Co dan Cr pada baja dapat meningkatkan kekerasannya. Namun, keberadaannya dengan kadar berlebih dapat menyebabkan kesulitan untuk membuat produk baja yang berbentuk lempengan.

Dengan kombinasi metoda bubbling dan compound separation, diyakinkan bahwa unsur-unsur pengotor tersebut dapat dimurnikan. Pilihan aggregation agents yang tepat dari mineral alam yang ada di Indonesia menjadi kunci solusi pengolahan bijih besi mandiri dari bahan baku lokal. Pengolahan bijih besi mandiri akan dapat menyajikan pasokan bahan baku baja untuk industri nasional selama lebih dari 100 tahun.

Menyelamatkan industri baja nasional

Menyongsong negara berbasis industri, Indonesia harus memiliki pasokan bahan baku baja mandiri. Indonesia tidak boleh tergantung kepada negara lain yang labil karena diperebutkan oleh negara-negara yang lebih maju dengan konsumsi yang jauh lebih besar. Harga bahan baku baja akan mudah disetir dan sangat merugikan. Program penyelamatan industri baja nasional melalui pengolahan bijih besi mandiri harus segera digulirkan kalau tidak ingin menemui kebangkrutan. Untuk mewujudkan program tersebut, berikut akan diuraikan peran masing-masing elemen yang terkait.

Pemerintah. Pemerintah harus dapat membuat kebijakan yang mengatur dan mengontrol terlaksananya program pengolahan bijih besi mandiri. Dana-dana harus diprioritaskan untuk tujuan tersebut di samping harus selalu mendorong elemen lain untuk bekerja keras mensukseskan program tersebut. Nilai ekonomi pasokan baja nasional (5-6 juta ton) melebihi 30 trilyun pertahun dan akan semakin meningkat seiring dengan kemajuan industri. Sementara itu, dana yang berkaitan dengan riset untuk pengembangan teknologi pengolahan bijih besi mandiri sangat sedikit bahkan cenderung tidak ada. Para peneliti di pusat-pusat penelitian harus bersaing untuk mendapatkan dana riset yang tersedia untuk pengembangan teknologi pengolahan bijih besi lokal karena tidak adanya prioritas yang mendukung program tersebut.

Lembaga penelitian. Sebagian besar lembaga penelitian yang mengembangkan riset di bidang pengolahan bijih besi sendiri-sendiri dan kurang melakukan koordinasi dengan lembaga lain atau dengan industri terkait. Walhasil, teknologi yang dikembangkan tidak bersifat integrated (menyeluruh) dan hasilnya masih belum bisa diterapkan ke industri terkait. Tidak terfokus dan terpusatnya program dan lokasi pengolahan bijih besi, semakin menjauhkan dari tujuan dan harapan yang diinginkan. Oleh karenanya, lembaga-lembaga yang memiliki fasilitas dan SDM serta fungsi yang berkaitan dengan perbajaan harus bersama-sama dan bekerja sama memprioritaskan riset dan dananya untuk tujuan membuat riset terpadu guna membangun pengolahan bijih besi mandiri.

Peneliti. Peneliti merupakan elemen kunci bagi pengembangan teknologi pengolahan bijih besi. Bahan baku lokal, seperti laterit dan pasir besi yang memiliki sifat-sifat unik (banyak pengotor Ti, V, Ni, Co, dan lain-lain) perlu diolah dengan teknologi tertentu. Para peneliti terkadang masih bersifat individual, dalam artian kurang bisa bekerja sama dengan peneliti di lembaga lain. Padahal teknologi yang telah dikuasainya masih harus digabung atau diintegrasikan dengan teknologi lain agar dapat menghasilkan sesuatu yang diinginkan. Keterbatasan dana penelitian juga masih menjadi faktor dominan para peneliti untuk tidak kreatif berkarya. Selain itu arahan masing-masing lembaga kepada para peneliti harus sering diberikan.

Industri. Industri adalah pelaku utama yang menjembatani temuan-temuan teknologi para peneliti kepada pemenuhan kebutuhan masyarakat. Atau dengan kata lain, industri berperan mengubah engineering frontier (teknologi yang tersedia di laboratotium) menjadi economic knowledge (teknologi bernilai ekonomi) dalam bentuk produk. Untuk membuat produk, industri akan menyedot tenaga kerja, yang pada akhirnya dapat meningkatkan perekonomian masyarakat. Jadi, industrilah yang berperan langsung meningkatkan taraf hidup masyarakat. Namun, ketika produk tidak berkualitas atau tidak memenuhi standar di pasar, maka industri akan menerima kerugian. Untuk dapat memenangkan persaingan, industri harus selalu menjaga kualitas produknya dengan selalu meningkatkan R&D dengan menjalin kerja sama dengan peneliti di lembaga penelitian.

Sebagian besar industri nasional dalam sektor riil berkaitan erat dengan perbajaan. Hampir seluruh peralatan produksi dan transportasi didominasi dengan baja. Tersendatnya pengadaan peralatan industri karena krisis baja dan harga yang mahal akan menurunkan kinerja proses produksi. Industri-industri yang berkaitan langsung dengan perbajaan, misalnya industri pengecoran, otomotif, peralatan pertanian, dan lain-lain harus mau berhimpun dan ikut berperan serta mendukung program pengolahan bijih besi mandiri. Di samping menjalin mitra kerjasama dengan sesama industri, mereka juga harus mau menjadi mitra lembaga penelitian dalam pengembangan riset baja melalui pemberian informasi permasalahan teknologi yang sedang dihadapi. Industri juga diharapkan siap membantu memasarkan hasil riset peneliti yang menunjang peningkatan kualitas produksinya.

Oleh karenanya penguasaan teknologi pemurnian skrap baja harus dibarengi dengan sebuah tim pemerintah-lembaga penelitian-industri yang solid untuk bisa menyelamatkan perekonomian bangsa ini. Semoga !

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Cooling Water Pada Centac Compressor

Agar semua peralatan atau mesin dapat bekerja dengan efisien dan aman, maka pada peralatan atau mesin tersebut dipasang system pendingin dalam hal ini adalah Cooling Water System. Demikian pula pada Centac Compressor, Cooling Water System sangat penting dalam hal mengontrol temperatur pada bagian – bagian Centac Compressor yang membutuhkan temperatur tertentu dalam beroperasi.

Adapun system pendingin dalam Centac Compressor adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Intercooler

Pada Centac Compressor, Intercooler merupakan system pendingin dengan desain Tube dan Shell dimana fluida kerja yang berupa udara mengalir dalam tube sedangkan Cooling Water mengalir dalam shell. Dalam menjaga suhu dan tekanan dari fluida kerja tersebut, Cooling Water bergerak berotasi mengelilingi sepanjang pipa – pipa dimana tempat fluida kerja mengalir. Sebagai hasil, sebagian dari fluida kerja atau udara mengalami kondensasi atau menjadi embun air. Setelah melalui intercooler, fluida kerja dan embun air tesebut menuju Separator. Di Separator embun air akan terpisah dengan fluida kerja agar embun air tidak ikut terbawa oleh fluida kerja ke stage berikutnya atau Aftercooler Embun air tersebut akan menuju drain, melalui Condensate Trap.

2. Aftercooler

Sama seperti Intercooler, Aftercooler merupakan system pendingin dengan desain Tube dan Shell dimana fluida kerja yang berupa udara mengalir dalam tube sedangkan Cooling Water mengalir dalam shell. Fluida kerja yang masuk dalam Aftercooler itu berasal dari Intercooler atau dengan kata lain fluida kerja yang telah melewati intercooler. Untuk menjaga suhu dan tekanan dari fluida kerja tersebut, Cooling Water bergerak berotasi mengelilingi sepanjang pipa – pipa yang dilalui fluida kerja tersebut. Sama dengan Intercooler, Aftercooler juga bergandengan dengan Separator dimana embun air akan terpisah dengan fluida kerja. Embun air akan menuju drain melalui Condensate Trap.

3. Oil Cooler
Pada Centac Compressor, bukan hanya udara yang perlu didinginkan tetapi oli juga perlu didinginkan. Karena Oli yang akan melumasi bearing pada Centac Compressor itu membutuhkan temperatur tertentu dalam beroperasi. Adapun temperatur normal oli beroperasi adalah 105 oF – 115 oF. Sama seperti Intercooler dan Aftercooler, Oil Cooler juga merupakan system pendingin dengan desain Tube dan Shell. Namun dalam Oil Cooler, Fluida kerjanya yang berupa oli berada dalam shell sedangkan Cooling Waternya berada dalam tube. Berbeda dengan Intercooler dan Aftercooler, Oil Cooler tidak bergandengan dengan Separator.

This is the a best Windows Vista Crack. It is by Paradox, and some of you may have seen it in Pantheon's Vista Ultimate release.

Included is keys for every version so you can install which one you want, and then follow the fix rules. This is the best way to crack Vista, no timestop bs. Also with this fix, you can still get Windows Updates Wink and MS can't tell the difference.

How does it work?

Microsoft allows large hardware manufacturers (e.g. ASUS, HP, Dell) to ship their products containing a Windows Vista installation that does NOT require any kind of product activation as this might be considered an unnecessary inconvenience for the end-user.

Instead these so-called 'Royalty OEMs' are granted the right to embed certain license information into their hardware products, which can be validated by Windows Vista to make obtaining further activation information (online or by phone) obsolete.
This mechanism is commonly referred to as 'SLP 2.0' ('system-locked pre-installation 2.0') and consists of the following three key elements:

1. The OEM's hardware-embedded BIOS ACPI_SLIC information signed by Microsoft.

2. A certificate issued by Microsoft that corresponds to the specific ACPI_SLIC information.

The certificate is an XML file found on the OEM's installation/recovery media, ususally called something like 'oemname.xrm-ms'.

3. A special type of product key that corresponds to the installed edition of Windows Vista.

This key can usually be obtained from some installation script found on the OEM's installation/recovery media or directly from a pre-installed OEM system.

If all three elements match Windows Vista's licensing mechansim considers the given installation a valid system-locked pre-activated copy (that does not require any additional product activation procedures).

So the basic concept of the tool at hand is to present any given BIOS ACPI_SLIC information to Windows Vista's licensing mechanism by means of a device driver. In combination with a matching product key and OEM certificate this allows for rendering any system practically indistinguishable from a legit pre-activated system shipped by the respective OEM.
How do I use it?

Preliminary hint: Most operations described below require elevated privileges, so disabling UAC (Run->MSCONFIG.EXE-> Tools->Disable UAC) for the time being is recommended, Of course, it can be safely re-enabled after all steps have been performed. Otherwise OEMTOOL.EXE and some SLMGR.VBS operations must be explicitly run with adminstrative privileges.

1. Install the Windows Vista x86 edition of your choice without entering any product key during setup. Basically any Windows Vista x86 installation media will do, regardless if it's MSDN/Retail/OEM/…, MSDN/Retail are recommended though.
2. Install the emulation driver.

Run OEMTOOL.EXE, select the OEM BIOS information to emulate (ASUS might be a good choice given the fact that it's the only OEM for which a complete set of product keys is provided ;)) and hit the '' button.

Alternatively you can just right-click the ROYAL.INF file and chose 'Install' from the appearing menu. This only allows for installing the default OEM BIOS information (ASUS) though and is strongly discouraged unless OEMTOOL.EXE fails for some unknown reason.

When prompted about whether to install an unsigned driver, allow it. (For some odd reason Microsoft didn't wanna sign this one…;))

3. Reboot your machine.

4. Install the OEM certificate matching your OEM selection during driver installation by running

SLMGR.VBS -ilc .XRM-MS

(e.g. "SLMGR.VBS -ilc C:\ASUS.XRM-MS" if you chose to install the default driver and extracted the certificate file to C:\)

Note that this operation might take quite a while depending on your system, so be patient.

5. Install an OEM product key matching the installed edition of Windows Vista x86 by running

SLMGR.VBS -ipk

(e.g. "SLMGR.VBS -ipk 6F2D7-2PCG6-YQQTB-FWK9V-932CC" if you're running Windows Vista Ultimate using the default emulation driver) Note that this operation might take quite a while depending on your system, so be patient.
See PKEYS.TXT for a list of OEM product keys published by different OEMs.

6. Run 'SLMGR.VBS -dlv' or right-click 'Computer' and chose 'Properties' to verify your licensing status.

Due to the variety of possible combinations of different earlier Vista activation hacks we're not gonna provide details on 'persuading' existing installations to accept this method. During our test the general procedure depicted above worked out fine though, i.e. installing the emulation driver, rebooting the machine and then using the officially documented ways of installing a matching OEM certificate and product key should do the trick in all but the most messed up cases.
What's that '' button in OEMTOOL.EXE for?

It dumps the BIOS ACPI_SLIC information of any SLP 2.0-enabled OEM system. The dump can consecutively be used to emulate ('clone') that information on any other system by specifying the 'Custom' option.
Using this function on a system booted using the emulation driver will give a dump identical to the currently emulated OEM BIOS information, so be sure to uninstall the driver and reboot the source machine first if you intend to dump the actual hardware-embedded OEM BIOS data.
What are all those files for?
DIFXAPI.DLL - a runtime dll for Microsoft's DIFx API used by oemtool.exe
OEMTOOL.EXE - an application for installing/uninstalling the emulation driver and dumping BIOS ACPI_SLIC information from any SLP 2.0-enabled Windows Vista OEM system
PKEYS.TXT - contains a list of validated OEM product keys
README.TXT - this file
ROYAL.INF - driver .INF file, can be (ab)used to install the emulation driver in case oemtool.exe fails to perform this task
ROYAL.SYS - the emulation device driver
CERTS\ACER.XRM-MS - the certificate that corresponds to the ACPI_SLIC information emulated by the driver when 'Acer' has been selected during driver installation
CERTS\ASUS.XRM-MS - the certificate that corresponds to the ACPI_SLIC information emulated by the driver when 'ASUS' has been selected during driver installation
CERTS\HEWLETT-PACKARD.XRM-MS - the certificate that corresponds to the ACPI_SLIC information emulated by the driver when 'Hewlett-Packard' has been selected during driver installation
CERTS\LENOVO.XRM-MS - the certificate that corresponds to the ACPI_SLIC information emulated by the driver when 'Lenovo' has been selected during driver installation
Enjoy, TEAM PARADOX '07

Teknologi Plasma untuk Daur Ulang Limbah Oil Sludge

Berbagai kasus pencemaran limbah beracun berbahaya (B3) dari penambangan minyak di Indonesia, hingga saat ini belum pernah ditangani dengan serius. Kasus pencemaran akibat oil sludge atau endapan pada tangki penyimpanan minyak industri perminyakan, seperti di Tarakan (Kalimantan Timur), Riau, Sorong (Papua), dan terakhir kasus pencemaran di Indramayu sudah seharusnya menjadi catatan penting bagi para pengelola penambangan minyak akan pentingnya pengolahan limbah oil sludge di tanah air.

Teknologi plasma banyak diterapkan sebagai salah satu teknik pengolahan limbah. Plasma umumnya dipergunakan pada pengolahan limbah padat. Di negara maju seperti Jepang plasma dipergunakan untuk mengolah logam atau limbah domestik pada insinerator sekaligus dapat mendaur ulang limbah logam berat seperti timbal (Pb) dan seng (Zn) yang terkandung limbah tersebut.

Dewasa ini, teknologi plasma juga dapat diterapkan dalam mengolah limbah oil sludge. Plasma tidak hanya dapat mengolah oil sludge, tapi sekaligus dapat mendaur ulang limbah yang umumnya mengandung sekitar 40% minyak. Dengan mengolah oil sludge akan menghasilkan light oil seperti minyak diesel yang siap pakai, dan residu dari proses pengolahan siap dan aman untuk dibuang (landfill).

Oil sludge

Limbah dari proses penyulingan minyak mentah (crude oil) dalam industri perminyakan sangatlah komplek. Limbah yang dihasilkan dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai limbah gas, cair dan padat. Kandungan limbah gas buangan seperti, volatile hydrocarbon, CO, NOx, dan SOx dapat mencemari lingkungan dan berbahaya bagi kesehatan masyarakat disekitarnya. Begitupula dengan limbah cair dari sisa proses penyulingan umumnya memiliki kandungan minyak, bahan-bahan kimia seperti, timbal, sulphide, phenol, dan chloride yang merupakan limbah beracun berbahaya.

Limbah padat yang dihasilkan disebut oil sludge. Dimana minyak hasil penyulingan (refines) dari minyak mentah biasanya disimpan dalam tangki penyimpanan. Oksidasi proses yang terjadi akibat kontak antara minyak, udara dan air menimbulkan adanya sedimentasi pada dasar tangki penyimpanan, endapan ini adalah oil sludge. Oil sludge terdiri dari, minyak (hydrocarbon), air, abu, karat tangki, pasir, dan bahan kimia lainnya. Kandungan dari hydrocarbon antara lain benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, dan logam berat seperti timbal (Pb) pada oil sludge merupakan limbah B3 yang dalam pengelolaannya harus mengacu pada peraturan pemerintah no. 18 tahun 1999, dimana limbah B3 harus diproses untuk mengubah karakteristik dan komposisi limbah B3 menjadi tidak beracun dan berbahaya.

Sebenarnya banyak teknik pengolahan limbah oil sludge yang dapat diaplikasikan seperti, incineration (pembakaran), centrifuges (pemisahan), steam extraction (ekstraksi), dan bioremediation (microbiologi). Namun, kenyataan dilapangan menunjukkan bahwa teknologi tersebut masih jauh dari yang diharapkan, ditambah lagi dengan biaya operasional yang masih sangat mahal.

Daur ulang limbah oil sludge

Dewasa ini pemanfaatan plasma dengan suhu tinggi (thermal plasma) dalam berbagai proses industri meningkat. Thermal plasma adalah gas yang terionisasi (ionized gas), dengan suhu tinggi diatas 10.000 ・. Thermal plasma dapat dibuat dengan electric arc, yang terbentuk diantara dua elektroda, dalam sebuah alat yang disebut plasma torch. Dengan memasukkan gas seperti, udara, argon, nitrogen, steam dan lain sebagainya kedalam plasma torch, atom atau molekul gas akan bertumbukan dengan elektron yang terbentuk dalam electric arc. Hasil dari proses ini adalah panas dan gas terionisasi yang akan memproduksi thermal plasma jet dengan temperature yang sangat tinggi.

Plasma yang dihasilkan dapat dipergunakan untuk mengolah dan mendaur ulang limbah oil sludge. Plasma yang dihasilkan oleh plasma torch dapat dioperasikan pada suhu 15.000 ・. Plasma ini dapat dipergunakan untuk menguapkan senyawa organik (hydrocarbon) yang terkandung dalam oil sludge. Senyawa organik yang menguap dapat dibentuk kembali dalam bentuk minyak, dan dapat dimanfaatkan.

Prose sistem pengolahan limbah oil sludge dengan plasma dapat dilihat pada Gambar 2. Energi yang diperlukan dalam proses dibentuk dalam plasma torch. Gas yang dipergunakan dalam torch adalah argon atau nitrogen (dalam hal ini tidak ada oksigen). Gas organik yang yang terbentuk dalam reaktor bersamaan dengan gas argon atau nitrogen kemudian dimasukkan kedalam kondensor, untuk mengubah uap gas tadi menjadi cairan. Setelah melalui pendinginan dalam kondensor cairan yang terbentuk dari gas organik tadi adalah light oil yang 100% dapat dipergunkan kembali. Gas argon atau nitrogen sendiri dapat dipergunakan kembali dalam reaktor proses.

Normal operasi temperatur yang dipergunakan dalam proses ini adalah sekitar 800 hingga 1200 derajat celcius, suhu terbaik yang dibutuhkan untuk menguapkan kandungan hydrocarbon dalam oil sludge. Kondisi dalam reaktor proses dikondisikan sedemikian rupa agar tidak terjadi proses oksidasi pada material hydrocarbon dan dapat mendukung proses pembentukan minyak pada condensator. Residu yang dihasilkan dari proses ini akan bebas dari kandungan hydrocarbon, dan siap untuk dibuang ke TPA dengan aman. Apabila pada oil sludge terkandung logam berat seperti timbal proses lanjutan dengan plasma dapat dilakukan untuk mendaur ulang logam tersebut.

Beberapa kelebihan dari pemanfaatan proses ini adalah energi efisiensinya dapat mencapai 80%, hal ini jauh lebih tinggi dibandingkan pada proses yang menggunakan gas atau bahan bakar minyak lain yang hanya dapat mencapai 20%. Juga plasma proses akan lebih efektif jika diaplikasikan pada limbah oil sludge yang memiliki kandungan hydrocarbon di atas 10%. Selanjutnya, kandungan hydrocarbon pada residu yang dihasilkan berkisar dibawah 0.01% dari total hydrocarbon.

Dengan menerapkan plasma proses pada limbah oil sludge diharapkan pencemaran lingkungan dan dampaknya bagi kesehatan masyarakat dapat dihindari. Lebih dari pada itu oil sludge dapat didaur ulang sehingga dapat menjadikan nilai tambah bagi industri perminyakan nasional.

Nowitzki's 34 leads Mavericks past Suns 122-117

Germany, goes up for a shot against Phoenix Suns' Louis Amundson …

PHOENIX – Dirk Nowitzki scored 23 of his 34 points in the second half and the Dallas Mavericks beat Phoenix 122-117 on Tuesday night to widen their lead over the Suns for the final playoff spot in the Western Conference.

The Suns lost their season-worst fifth in a row to fall five games behind the Mavericks, with 18 to play, for the eighth playoff berth in the West.

Jason Terry added 25 points and Jose Barea 16 for Dallas. Shaquille O'Neal scored 21 on 9-of-10 shooting for Phoenix to pass Elvin Hayes for sixth on the NBA's career scoring list. Steve Nash had 23 points and 13 assists for the Suns. Matt Barnes added 21 points.

Dallas took final control with a 10-2 run late in the fourth quarter. Nowitzki made a pair of outside jumpers to start the spurt, then Jason Kidd sank two 3-pointers and it was 112-99 with 3:08 to play.

The Suns scored the next six to cut it to 112-105 on Jason Richardson's inside basket with 1:35 to play. But after a timeout, Terry broke loose for a layup to boost it to 114-105 and Dallas won on the road for the first time in six tries.

Phoenix led 70-64 after O'Neal's 10-foot bank shot with 9:31 to play in the third quarter, but the Suns managed just two field goals — both by Leandro Barbosa — over the next 6:10.

Nowitzki, who had 15 points in the third quarter, scored the last four in an 18-4 Dallas run that put the Mavericks ahead 82-74 on his two free throws with 3:56 left in the period.

Phoenix cut it to 89-87 on Barnes' breakaway layup with 22 seconds to play. But Terry made one 3-pointer with 52 seconds left and another with 6 seconds remaining, and Dallas led 92-87 entering the fourth quarter.

The Mavs' lead reached 100-92 on Brandon Bass' 11-footer with 7 1/2 minutes to play. Phoenix twice cut it to five points, the last on Barnes' layup with 6:33 to play. The Suns had two chances to get closer but couldn't score, then Dallas was off on its game-clinching run.

O'Neal got his 13th point of the night with 1:34 left in the first half to pass Hayes on the career scoring list. With 27,322 points, O'Neal needs 88 to pass Moses Malone for fifth.

The basket, on an assist from Nash, capped a string of five straight points by the Suns' big man to give Phoenix its biggest lead of the half, 59-52. He was fouled on the play but missed the free throw.

On the next possession, O'Neal threw the ball away, resulting in Terry's 3-pointer that cut it to 59-55. Barbosa and Antoine Wright each made 3-pointers in the final 1:03 and Phoenix led 62-58 at the break.

Notes:@ The Mavericks lead the season series 2-1. The teams meet one more time, April 5 in Dallas. ... Barea replaced Devean George for his seventh start of the season. ... Dallas snapped a string of nine straight road losses against Western Conference foes. ... The Mavs' last road victory anywhere was Feb. 2 at Orlando. ... Nash has scored at least 20 points in six consecutive games for the first time in his 13-year NBA career. He has at least 20 points and 10 assists in his last four games.

Stem-cell policy change liberating to researchers

WASHINGTON – Eight years of frustration are close to an end for scientists seeking ways to use embryonic stem cells to combat illness and injury.

On Monday, President Barack Obama plans to reverse limits imposed by President George W. Bush on using federal money for research with embryonic stem cells.

The long-promised move will allow a rush of research aimed at one day better treating, if not curing, ailments from diabetes to paralysis — research that is has drawn broad support, including from notables like Nancy Reagan, widow of the late Republican President Ronald Reagan, and the late Christopher Reeve.

But it stirs intense controversy over whether government crosses a moral line with such research, and opponents promptly denounced the move. On Saturday, the Vatican's newspaper reiterated Catholic teaching that embryonic stem cell research is "deeply immoral."

Obama will hold an event at the White House to announce the move, a senior administration official said Friday. The official spoke on condition of anonymity because the policy had not yet been publicly announced.

Embryonic stem cells are master cells that can morph into any cell of the body. Scientists hope to harness them so they can create replacement tissues to treat a variety of diseases — such as new insulin-producing cells for diabetics, cells that could help those with Parkinson's disease or maybe even Alzheimer's, or new nerve connections to restore movement after spinal injury.

"I feel vindicated after eight years of struggle, and I know it's going to energize my research team," said Dr. George Daley of the Harvard Stem Cell Institute and Children's Hospital of Boston, a leading stem cell researcher.

But the research is controversial because days-old embryos must be destroyed to obtain the cells. They typically are culled from fertility-clinic leftovers otherwise destined to be thrown away.

Under Bush, taxpayer money for that research was limited to a small number of stem cell lines that were created before Aug. 9, 2001, lines that in many cases had some drawbacks that limited their potential usability.

But hundreds more of such lines — groups of cells that can continue to propagate in lab dishes — have been created since then, ones that scientists say are healthier, better suited to creating treatments for people rather than doing basic laboratory science.

Work didn't stop. Indeed, it advanced enough that this summer, the private Geron Corp. will begin the world's first study of a treatment using human embryonic stem cells, in people who recently suffered a spinal cord injury.

Nor does Obama's change fund creation of new lines. But it means that scientists who until now have had to rely on private donations to work with these newer stem cell lines can apply for government money for the research, just like they do for studies of gene therapy or other treatment approaches.

The aim of the policy is to restore "scientific integrity" to the process, the administration official said.

"America's biomedical research enterprise experienced steady decline over the past eight years, with shrinking budgets and policies that elevated ideology over science. This slowed the pace of discovery and the search for cures," said Sean Morrison, director of the University of Michigan's Center for Stem Cell Biology.

Critics immediately denounced the move.

"Taxpayers should not have to foot the bill for experiments that require the destruction of human life," said Tony Perkins of the conservative Family Research Council. "President Obama's policy change is especially troubling given the significant adult stem cell advances that are being used to treat patients now without harming or destroying human embryos."

Indeed, there are different types of stem cells: So-called adult stem cells that produce a specific type of tissue; younger stem cells found floating in amniotic fluid or the placenta. Scientists even have learned to reprogram certain cells to behave like stem cells.

But even researchers who work with varying types consider embryonic stem cells the most flexible and thus most promising form — and say that science, not politics, should ultimately judge.

"Science works best and patients are served best by having all the tools at our disposal," Daley said.

Obama made it clear during the campaign he would overturn Bush's directive.

During the campaign, Obama said, "I strongly support expanding research on stem cells. I believe that the restrictions that President Bush has placed on funding of human embryonic stem cell research have handcuffed our scientists and hindered our ability to compete with other nations."

He said he would lift Bush's ban and "ensure that all research on stem cells is conducted ethically and with rigorous oversight."

"Patients and people who've been patient advocates are going to be really happy," said Amy Comstock Rick of the Coalition for the Advancement of Medical Research.

The ruling will bring one immediate change: As of Monday, scientists who've had to meticulously keep separate their federally funded research and their privately funded stem cell work — from buying separate microscopes to even setting up labs in different buildings — won't have that expensive hurdle anymore.

Next, scientists can start applying for research grants from the National Institutes of Health. The NIH already has begun writing guidelines that, among other things, are expected to demand that the cells being used were derived with proper informed consent from the woman or couple who donated the original embryo.

Pet store expects fish shipment, but gets corpse

PHILADELPHIA – Employees of a Pennsylvania pet store expecting a shipment of tropical fish and salt water got a man's dead body instead. Mark Arabia owns the Pets Plus store in northeast Philadelphia, where the mix-up was discovered Tuesday. He says he learned the body was that of a 65-year-old San Diego-area man who died of early onset Alzheimer's disease.

The body was supposed to go to a research laboratory in Allentown, a 70-mile drive away.

US Airways Inc. released a statement saying the air cargo problem was caused by a "verbal miscommunication between a delivery driver and the cargo representative." The Tempe, Ariz.-based airline said it's deeply sorry.

The fish were shipped in three boxes. The corpse was shipped in a wooden coffin wrapped in cardboard.

Arabia said the fish were left at the airport and probably died.

Two words for a frugal flier: Patience. Wednesday.

Want to fly cheap? Time to break some bad habits.

Like buying the first cheap ticket you see or waiting until the last minute to book a fare.

As the economic slump continues and both business and leisure travel declines, fares are getting cheaper as airlines try to fill seats. A roundtrip ticket between San Francisco to Boston for instance, was selling on Feb. 4 for $238, down from $400 on Nov. 1. Even with such bargains, however, travelers need to know a few tricks to get the very best prices.

First, don't hurry.

Matthew D. Weyer sometimes spends hours researching fares online. Knowing what a ticket usually sells for allows him to spot cheap fares almost immediately.

Weyer sets up e-mail alerts for prices on the route he's shopping for at fare-watching sites like Kayak.com or Farecast.com. He finds out whether discount-carrier Southwest Airlines Co. flies a route. He also checks the ticket on booking sites like Travelocity or Orbitz.

Weyer recently shopped for a flight from Greenville, N.C., to Chicago, a ticket he said commonly runs around $410 round-trip. He was tempted at $280. He eventually paid $180 on Priceline.com. Weyer figures he spent about two hours spread over a couple of days searching for the ticket.

Weyer starts shopping as far in advance as he can, but doesn't book right away. He considers it safe to book between one and three months ahead of time. Airlines post their schedules anywhere from six to 11 months in advance.

The 24-year-old Chicago college student and software programmer once flew for only $9 on Spirit Airlines from Chicago to Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., and says the most he has ever paid for a ticket is $240.

Having a price in mind is good advice. A sense of timing helps, too.

If you tend to make travel plans during weekend downtime, reconsider. The best time to shop is late Monday or early Tuesday, some fare experts say. Airlines often start fare sales on Sunday night or Monday morning, said Rick Seaney of FareCompare.com. Those sales alone are fine if they include the flight you want. But other carriers generally match the fare sale by Monday evening or Tuesday morning, giving you more choices.

Seaney said Wednesdays are generally the cheapest day to fly. Tuesdays and Saturdays are also good days to fly because demand is low and the airlines are trying to fill seats.

It's natural for travelers to book their flight when the workday is done or the kids are asleep. But the airlines are posting fares on their own schedule. They file fares to the computer system that shares them among Web sites and travel agents three times each weekday — 10 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 8 p.m. Eastern time. It's 5 p.m. Eastern on Saturdays and Sundays. That means fares can change at those times, so when you do see a fare at the price you're looking for, grab it.

Former New Yorker Jill Gott of Providence, R.I., spent two and a half weeks checking American Airlines' Web site several times a day before snagging a $109 round-trip ticket between New York-LaGuardia and Atlanta. She said it was only available for about three hours before jumping back up to $250.

"I just decide what I want to pay for something, and I just keep clicking away until I get it," she said.

But shopper beware. Fares start to rise again 7 to 10 days before a flight — sometimes as long as 14 days or more, depending on the airline and sale offer. Airlines raise fares closer to the departure date because last-minute seats tend to be bought by business travelers and others who must fly at certain times.

Roger Johnson, director of revenue management at New York-based JetBlue Airways Corp., notes that it can be risky for a flier to delay buying a ticket in hopes it will be even cheaper. He says there's no good way for customers to know whether a fare sale will show up in their market.

"They would be gambling that this would happen and would probably lose out more than they would win," he said.

AirTran Airways spokesman Tad Hutcheson said his advice is simple: "I would follow the Moscow rule of shopping — you see it, you like it, you buy it."

Where to buy also matters. For an airline ticket alone, your best bet is an individual airline's Web site, because you'll skip the extra fees some travel Web sites charge.

But those sites don't carry Southwest fares. That means checking Southwest's Web site is a must if you're flying near a city it serves. For instance, on Feb. 24, Southwest was offering tickets on the Baltimore-Austin route for as low as $99, while Orbitz's cheapest offering was $193.

If you're packaging airfare, hotel and a rental car, however, consider Orbitz and Travelocity, which often discount such bundles.

Like Weyer, you can also try Priceline, where users can bid for tickets. A customer may end up with an undesirable itinerary, like flying in the wrong direction to make a connection, but the fare can sometimes be cheaper. Not all airlines, however, participate in Priceline's "name your own price" offer.

Another piece of advice — learn to love St. Louis, Detroit, Chicago O'Hare, and other hub airports where you can connect to your final destination. Nonstops are convenient, desirable — and sometimes more expensive, said George Hobica, who runs airfarewatchdog.com. That's not always the case, though, so always compare.

If travel isn't possible or desirable in the near term, don't worry. Tom Parsons, chief executive of travel Web site BestFares.com, said great fare sales are possible in the coming months for travel during the peak summer period.

"I would keep watching and watching and watching," Parsons said. "This is a very fragile airfare system out there."

Adam Lambert astonishes `American Idol' judges

LOS ANGELES – If the "American Idol" judges have their way, it won't be curtains for Adam Lambert anytime soon. The 26-year-old theater actor from Los Angeles seamlessly impressed the panel — and eclipsed his 12 co-finalists — with an energized rendition of the tune "Black or White" during Tuesday's Michael Jackson-themed performance show.

"You've got the whole package going on," Paula Abdul exclaimed following Lambert's performance.

Anoop Desai, from Chapel Hill, N.C., was the target of the judges' harshest criticism. Randy Jackson said the 21-year-old college student's decision to perform "Beat It" was the "wrong choice" while Simon Cowell declared it "horrible." Jorge Nunez, the 20-year-old college student from Carolina, Puerto Rico, was also targeted for a lackluster song pick.

In defense of his "Never Can Say Goodbye," Nunez said: "I was not going to sing 'Bad' by Michael Jackson."

"Well, you sorta did," Cowell retaliated.

The judges seemed satisfied with most of the evening's other performers, especially Lil Rounds and Danny Gokey, who danced around while belting out "Pretty Young Thing." Cowell dubbed Gokey's moves "hideous" but said that his vocals were "brilliant." Jackson said he continued to love Rounds, who kicked off the show with "The Way You Make Me Feel."

A few of the finalists used their first time on the main "Idol" stage to showcase their musical abilities. Piano players Matt Giraud from Kalamazoo, Mich., and Scott MacIntyre from Scottsdale, Ariz., tickled the ivories on "Human Nature" and "Keep the Faith," respectively. Kris Allen from Conway, Ark., played his guitar during "Remember the Time."

"You're engaging," Abdul told Allen, "and kinda adorable/sexy."

Voters for final performer Alexis Grace, the 21-year-old single mother from Memphis, Tenn., were directed to 1-866-IDOLS-36. The singing contest — which has 13 finalists this season instead of the usual dozen — used that line because 1-866-IDOLS-13 is owned by a phone sex operation which promises to connect listeners to a "nasty girl" for $3.99 a minute.

At the beginning of the episode, Cowell announced that two singers — not just one — would be dismissed from the popular Fox singing competition Wednesday. He also later teased that an alteration in the "Idol" structure involving the show's judges would be revealed Wednesday. Host Ryan Seacrest said it will change "the entire theme and concept of the show."

Viewers immediately began speculating online about the possible season-eight switch-up after Tuesday's performance show. The most popular theory: the bottom vote-getters must now "sing for their lives" and the show's judges will have the ability to save a contestant from being sent home.

Sweden wins doubles, leads Israel 2-1 in Davis Cup

MALMO, Sweden – While demonstrators clashed with police outside the near-empty stadium, Sweden won the doubles match Saturday to take a 2-1 lead against Israel in the Davis Cup series.

Simon Aspelin and Robert Lindstedt defeated Israelis Andy Ram and Amir Hadad 6-4, 1-6, 7-6 (4), 6-4 as police held off dozens of anti-Israel protesters who tried to storm the barricades outside the 4,000-seat Baltic Hall.

The players found out about the melee after the match.

"We knew there were going to be a few thousand people screaming out there," Ram said. "Inside here we didn't feel anything. The police did a good job."

Only 300 special guests were allowed inside the hall to watch Ram and Hadad save two match points before Lindstedt's drop shot winner clinched the match. Malmo officials had closed the venue to the public, citing security risks and protests against Israel because of the recent offensive in the Gaza Strip.

Earlier in the week, Ram said it was a "stupid decision" to play the match behind closed doors.

"Playing without a crowd is like playing a practice match," Ram said.

On Sunday, Israel's Dudi Sela is scheduled to play Thomas Johansson in reverse singles, followed by Harel Levy against Andreas Vinciguerra.

The clashes erupted after about 7,000 people gathered at a downtown square to hear speeches condemning Israel's offensive in Gaza and urging support for Palestinians.

Organizers of the "stop the match" protest had said the demonstration would be peaceful, but extreme-left activists had vowed to disrupt the match.

About 100 people were apprehended and at least six were formally arrested for rioting, Malmo police spokeswoman Ewa Westford said. There were no reports of injuries.

About 1,000 police from southern Sweden were deployed in Malmo, the nation's third largest city, to keep the protesters from entering the arena.

Ram and Hadad rallied after dropping the first set but the Swedes raised their game in the third.

"They played a good tiebreak to win the third set," Ram said. "And they didn't give us any chances in the fourth."

The Swedes, who were favored to win the doubles, were relieved to head into the reverse singles on Sunday with a one-point advantage.

"If we hadn't won this match, things would have looked more difficult on Sunday," Lindstedt said.

Hadad, ranked 980th in singles and 347th in doubles, was called up to play for Israel.

"We have two injured players, and I was next," Hadad said.

On Friday, Johansson put Sweden ahead with a five-set win over Levy before Sela evened the series with a five-set victory against Vinciguerra.

It marks the second time a Davis Cup series was played without fans in Sweden. In 1975, two years after a military coup in Chile led by Augusto Pinochet, Sweden played Chile in an empty stadium in Bastad.

Museum reveals engraving hidden in Lincoln watch

WASHINGTON – For nearly 150 years, a story has circulated about a hidden Civil War message engraved inside Abraham Lincoln's pocket watch. On Tuesday, museum curators confirmed it was true. A watchmaker used tiny tools to carefully pry open the antique watch at the National Museum of American History, and a descendant of the engraver read aloud the message from a metal plate underneath the watch face.

"Jonathan Dillon April 13 - 1861," part of the inscription reads, "Fort Sumpter (sic) was attacked by the rebels on the above date." Another part reads, "Thank God we have a government."

The words were etched in tiny cursive handwriting and filled the the space between tiny screws and gears that jutted through the metal plate. A magnifying glass was required to read them.

Jonathan Dillon, then a watchmaker on Pennsylvania Avenue, had Lincoln's watch in his hands when he heard the first shots of the Civil War had been fired in South Carolina. The Irish immigrant later recalled being the only Union sympathizer working at the shop in a divided Washington.

Dillon's story was passed down among his family and friends, eventually reaching a New York Times reporter. In a 1906 article in the paper, an 84-year-old Dillon said no one, including Lincoln, ever saw the inscription as far as he knew.

Dillon had a fuzzy recollection of what he had engraved. He told the newspaper he had written: "The first gun is fired. Slavery is dead. Thank God we have a president who at least will try."

For years the story went unconfirmed.

The watchmaker's great-great grandson, Doug Stiles, first heard the tale of the engraving from his great uncle decades ago. He said the story had reached extended family as far away as Ireland.

A few months ago, he used Google to find the New York Times story, and last month he passed the information along to Smithsonian curators, who knew nothing about the engraving.

On Tuesday, watchmaker George Thomas, who volunteers at the museum, spent several minutes carefully opening the watch as an audience of reporters and museum workers watched on a video monitor.

"The moment of truth has come. Is there or is there not an inscription?" Thomas said, teasing the audience, which gasped when he confirmed it was there. He called Stiles up to read his ancestor's words, drawing smiles and a few sighs of relief.

"Like Pearl Harbor or 9/11, this was the reaction he had (to the Civil War,)" Stiles said of the inscription.

Later, Stiles said he felt closer to the 16th president.

"My gosh, that was Lincoln's watch," he said, "and my ancestor put graffiti on it!"

Lincoln's family kept the watch until it was donated to the museum in 1958. It was Lincoln's everyday pocket watch, one of the president's only valuable possessions he brought with him to the White House from Springfield, Ill., said Harry Rubenstein, curator of the museum's politics and reform division.

"I think it just captures a bit of history that can transform you to another time and place," he said. "It captures the excitement, the hope of a watchmaker in Washington."

The watch will go back on display at the museum by Wednesday as part of the exhibit, "Abraham Lincoln: An Extraordinary Life." It will have a new label to tell Dillon's story and a photo of the inscription.

Georgia inmate arrested trying to get back in jail

WOODBINE, Ga. – Authorities say they arrested an escaped jail inmate trying to sneak back into the lockup with cigarettes allegedly stolen from a nearby store.

Sheriff Tommy Gregory said Saturday that 25-year-old Harry Jackson had opened a door to the exercise yard and climbed the outer fence.

Deputies found a jail door unlocked early Saturday and were looking for the inmate. They spotted Jackson trying to come back in and found 14 packs of cigarettes they believe were stolen from a convenience store about a block away.

Jackson faces new charges of breaking out of jail and burglary. He was already in jail in Camden County in far southeast Georgia for charges including possession of a controlled substance and violating probation.

US ship in China spat was hunting subs

WASHINGTON – The U.S. Navy ship that got into a scrape with five Chinese vessels last weekend in the South China Sea was looking for threats such as submarines — presumably Chinese — in waters that China claims as its own, defense officials acknowledged Tuesday.

The United States maintains that the unarmed USNS Impeccable was operating legally in international waters when it was surrounded and harassed by the Chinese. Beijing responded hotly to a U.S. protest over Sunday's incident, and neither nation is backing down, even as they prepare for a much-anticipated first meeting between President Barack Obama and Chinese President Hu Jintao next month.

Although they would not be specific about the Impeccable's mission when it was intercepted by the Chinese ships, two defense officials said the ship is designed and equipped for sub-hunting work and was part of a calculated U.S. surveillance operation in the disputed South China Sea.

The officials spoke on condition of anonymity because the ship's exact capabilities are sensitive. Other U.S. officials have said on the record that the U.S. military will continue to patrol in the South China Sea despite Chinese objections.

A senior U.S. intelligence official said Tuesday the confrontation was the most serious episode between the two nations since 2001, when tensions rose over an in-flight collision between a U.S. and a Chinese plane.

"They seem to be more militarily aggressive," National Intelligence Director Dennis Blair told members of the Senate Armed Services Committee.

"I think the debate is still on in China whether as their military power increases they will be used for good or for pushing people around."

The surveillance ship tows a sonar apparatus that scans and listens for foreign threats that also include mines and torpedoes. The sonar array was deployed at the time of the confrontation, and a U.S. account says Chinese mariners tried to snag it with poles.

The ship is operated by a civilian crew under Navy supervision. It is not a warship or, strictly speaking, a spy ship. Its work is part of a largely unseen cat and mouse game in which the United States tracks foreign submarines on the open seas.

In this case, the sub-hunting took place in a disputed band of water far off the Chinese coastline but within what Beijing considers a 200-mile economic zone under its control. The zone, under international law, gives a state certain rights over the use of natural resources there. That clashes with one of the cardinal principles of America's doctrine of ocean navigation — the right to unrestricted passage in international waters as long as vessels are not encroaching on the economic interests of the country they pass.

"It is our view that we were operating in international waters," State Department spokesman Robert Wood said Tuesday.

While the U.S. has offered talks on the issue, neither side appears willing to compromise.

"The Chinese do the same thing. It's just that they don't do it around us," said Bonnie Glaser, an expert on the Chinese military and U.S.-Chinese relations at the Center for Strategic and International Studies.

Glaser said the two nations need a better rule book for the disputed area, but she predicted that both countries will try to make sure the diplomatic sniping over the Impeccable doesn't go too far.

Analysts also noted that the incident, capping a string of provocations in the South China Sea, comes as China nears announcement that it will expand its naval capabilities. China this week also unveiled its plans for a nearly 15 percent increase in defense spending this year.

China will have an aircraft carrier "very soon," a top Chinese naval officer told a newspaper last week, fueling speculation over a pending official announcement on the long-awaited project. Meanwhile, a State Department official said Tuesday that the Obama administration was considering whether to raise the matter with Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi, who was due in Washington on Wednesday to meet with U.S. diplomats.

U.S. defense officials had said the Chinese boats veered so close to the Impeccable that the U.S. civilian crew had to spray one Chinese vessel with a high-pressure stream of water. Stripped to their drenched underwear, the Chinese crew came within 25 feet. When the Impeccable tried to withdraw, U.S. officials said, Chinese boats veered in its path and dropped debris in the water.

T-ball pioneer made game a huge hit over 50 years

ALBION, Mich. – Jerry Sacharski crafted his first batting tee from metal piping, some pieces of rubber and part of a garden hose. Half a century later he still was coaching T-ball, a game that introduced baseball to millions of kids from backyards to the White House lawn.

Many in this college town of 9,100 give Sacharski the nod for being the architect of T-ball, though that kind of recognition made the longtime teacher uncomfortable. He figured that somebody, somewhere, had previously put a baseball on a tee.

What Sacharski is widely credited with doing is developing a set of rules for the game that allowed young children to play before they'd mastered two fundamental but difficult skills: throwing a pitch and hitting one.

The benefits served them well, from Little League onto the majors.

"I loved it. I have some great memories," said Texas star Michael Young, a career .300 hitter.

In 1954, Sacharski took a part-time job as director of the city of Albion's Recreation Department. To get more youngsters interested in baseball, he figured that having them hit from his jury-rigged tees placed atop home plate would make things easier. Not only could the batter hit, other players could learn to field and throw.

Five teams of about a dozen players each took part in the first season of Albion's "Pee Wee Baseball League," as Sacharski called it. The game debuted June 25, 1956, at Victory Park, and T-ball is still played there.

Within a year or two, organized T-ball leagues were popping up everywhere, says his son, who was among those playing that first season.

"He was very sensitive about being credited with actually inventing the game," says Will Sacharski, now 60 and the youngest of three. "He didn't necessarily want to take credit for that."

His father died Feb. 27 at his home in Albion, about 85 miles west of Detroit. Jerry Sacharski was 93 and had spent the past few years in failing health.

After his funeral here this week, some of the original Albion T-ballers, now in their 60s, reminisced about Sacharski and how the game helped shape who they are today.

Tommy Clark says playing in that first league increased his interest in baseball and boosted his confidence as a player.

"It was one of the best times of my life," says Clark, now 62 and a retired inspector for General Motors Corp.

Clark, who lives in Albion and became lifelong friends with Sacharski, played for the Davy Crocketts. The team that won the title that year was the Porky Pigs, whose players included Dave Bieskie, who lives across the street from Victory Park.

Bieskie says he enjoyed T-ball but his baseball career ended early — at age 13 — when he got a job delivering newspapers.

T-ball has come a long way since the 1950s.

These days, about 2.2 million children ages 4-7 participate annually in T-ball leagues around this country, according to the T-Ball USA Association Web site. Former President George W. Bush, once a part-owner of the Texas Rangers, held T-ball games on the South Lawn of the White House each year he was in office.

Glenn Hoffman, a former big leaguer who is now the third base coach for the San Diego Padres, said two of his five children played T-ball. "To be able to play in an organized game, a structured game, at that age was a great atmosphere for my kids growing up, before it led them into Little League for the 8-year-olds," he said.

New York Yankees great and now Los Angeles Dodgers hitting coach Don Mattingly has long maintained that players of all ages can improve their slugging by practicing with a batting tee. All three of his sons have played T-ball.

"Our neighborhood, they had leagues for T-ball to get them started, then they progressed on," he said. "It's funny, because you get kids that are in Little League, they don't want to use the tee anymore because they look at it like this little starting thing that little kids use.

"Then I try to explain to them that guys like Manny (Ramirez) and other guys are all using that. Why wouldn't they want to use it?"

Born Feb. 6, 1916, in West Allis, Wis., Sacharski was a standout basketball player at what was then known as Oshkosh State Teachers College and is now the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh.

He served in the Army during World War II, reaching the rank of second lieutenant, and played on an armed forces basketball team with several college stars.

From 1951 until he retired in 1980, Sacharski taught at Albion Public Schools — a range of subjects including history, social studies, English and Latin. He also coached high school baseball for many years.

"Everything that he did, the purpose was to teach something," says Will Sacharski, who followed in his father's footsteps to become a teacher and coach.

When Rodney Ferguson took over as Albion's recreation director in 2002, many years after Sacharski had left the job, he discovered that the T-ball league needed to be reorganized and revitalized. Ferguson sought help from Sacharski, who dusted off copies of his rules and field diagrams and showed him T-ball film that he shot in the 1950s.

To Ferguson's surprise, Sacharski also returned to the diamond that year as a T-ball coach, which he continued to do through 2006, when he was 90.

"The big thing with Jerry Sacharski was he invested his time in you to help you be a better young person," Ferguson said.

Will Sacharski said his father seemed to have an unlimited amount of patience with children and a remarkable memory, even late in life, for their achievements long ago. He enjoyed nothing more than talking with his former players — decades later — and reminding them of their outstanding plays.

"I think he knew everybody in town and everything about them," says Doug Fausz, another original Albion T-baller who lived two blocks from Sacharski for about 30 years.

The 61-year-old Fausz, who works for a cleaning service at Albion College, said that one day in 2006, shortly before the city held a 50th-anniversary celebration of its first T-ball season, Sacharski stopped by his home while he was outside and motioned him over to his car.

"The man's 90 years old and he said to me, 'Where were you at 50 years ago today?' and I looked at him and said, 'No clue.' He told me where I was at, what I was doing — I mean, he went through the whole thing."